In this chapter we learn how this 2nd wave of Civilization led into the Classical Period for the next revolution for mankind. This time period becomes difficult to categorize as the different regions began their next evolutionary phase during different points in time. Competition for dominance between civilizations remained strong during the course of this era, and the conquered lands lead to the formations of complex empires with big diverse cities. An example of this movement could be seen with the Persians (who were the first to create the idea of an empire). To paraphrase: when the Persians migrated to a Ruler’s territory, they had the option to combine forces and become part of the Persian Empire, or challenge them at the risk of losing their lands. While submission toward a challenging empire would traditionally be seen defeat, the Persians believed the conquered villages should continue their lives in autonomy; these results benefited the smaller towns by supporting intricate infrastructures (like the postal system, and the innovative road system), as well as better security between these united towns to migrate and transport goods. The down side to being resigning to the Persian Empire is that in times of war or future conquests, they would use the resources produced by the cities to participate in these conquests.
Another improvement within this classical period were the rise of unique seminal thinkers. Within each region according to their own timely development, philosophers began to create original ideas about how people should exemplify one another, their domesticated roles within the hierarchy of the community, as well as the improvements that can be made on the self to guarantee desirable passage onto the afterlife. In China, Confucius educated his students with the philosophy of how the everyday man can perfect himself to find an honorable living, and to create honorable relationships. For the Chinese citizens that wish to perfect their lives, his lessons on the “Superior Man” dictate the responsibilities an individual can do to gain humility, as well as providing examples of the “mean man” and their characteristics of the lost focus from Confucius’s guidance. Within the Analects (the collective works of Confucius) he stated that to attain perfect virtue, “It is, when you go abroad, to behave to everyone as if you were receiving a great guest; to employ the people as if you were assisting at a great sacrifice; not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself; to have no murmuring against you in the country, and none in the family.”(p.200). The philosophy of Confucius also emphasizes on the importance of heritage and inspired his followers to practice “filial piety” to honor their fallen ancestors. With the emphasis on hierarchy between family and social ranks, Confucius was also responsible for the Mandate of Heaven which described the fate of people in leadership roles—the appointed leader is expected to exemplify fairness and good will while in office; his success is then decided by the higher powers of the unseen forces (allowing the said leaders get into heaven). The Chinese culture was not religious; however, following the Confucian teachings, they realized their incomprehension with how the world functioned within the physical realm. Due to their limited data, they also could not confirm the knowledge of what to expect in the afterlife. This caused their culture to treat their lives as if the spirits were continually around them. Members of the Chinese elite excluded themselves from the Gods and supernatural forces, and designated the spiritual realm for the middle and poorer classes; the educated elite felt they required little help for enlightenment, and instead they appointed the harmonious and spiritual lifestyle to help manage the bottom classes.
The origins of Confucianism share a lot of similarities with the Hinduism movement; however, unlike Confucius’s methods pertaining to enlightenment through philosophy, Hinduism was a collection of ideas and gods that helped people find the enlightenment through spirituality. The strongest foundation within the Hindu belief is the theology of reincarnation—where the spirit is born into another life after the individual dies in their current life. The construction of this reincarnation associates within the hierarchy of the Hindu society (the four major roles being the life of a peasant, the life of a merchant, the life of a warrior, and the life of a priest, are all structurally identified as “castes”). When the person dies, they will be reincarnated into the next caste, and with each life they are expected to perform to the best of their ability within that role. Those that attempt to jump the ranks within the living lifetime, or those who fail at fulfilling their roles are said to have tainted souls and would come back as something lesser until they rectify their sins and perform admirably again. This notion is further explored within the Bhagavad Gita Robert Strayer included with his supporting documents; the Bhagavad Gita was a document describing the conflicted leader Arjuna’s decision to lead his men into battle with the foresight of many of his soldiers not surviving the onslaught. His Lord Krishna reaffirms his burdens by explaining the better life the fallen soldiers will be granted if they fought by impeccable standards. One of many quotes within the ancient texts states, “If you do not fight this righteous battle, then you will have abandoned your own duty and your fame and you will incur sin” (p. 201 in Chapter 4 Documents of Strayer’s Ways of the World).
Within the Documents, Strayer also added some ancient texts that included Plato’s “Apology” to Socrates and the Gospel of Matthew that depicts both of their versions of theology in monotheism. In contrast to Confucianism and Hinduism, Jesus began his teachings to improve the lives of his followers with commandments to honor and practice. Those willing to take on these rules would be granted into his heaven, and the ones that wouldn’t follow were not accepted in. The last seminal thinker that shared the same manifestation of a person turned into a holy deity that Strayer spoke about was Buddha, and the different forms he personified. Originally Buddha was born into royalty and married his cousin at 16, and 13 years later they had a son. During the course of his life, he became steadily curious of the world, and decided to escape his palace the day his son was born. In doing so, he abandoned his jewels, his hair, his clothes, his family, everything in search for enlightenment for 6 years. He began a 49 day intense spiritual realization in India, and became the Buddha people can recognize today as “the man who had awakened”. For the next 40 years, he taught everything he learned from this experience. After Buddha’s passing, his lessons and teachings lived on; his identities grew into spiritual representations of more than just the traveler of the world, and are interpreted into four separate forms. Five centuries after his death, artists depicted his first form as a god by painting unmanned objects that represented him (with footprints, a horse with no rider, a tree, a wheel, etc.) and “…Since he had passed into nirvana he could not be physically present” (p. 209). His second form was the first appearance in human form seen in south Asia, and The Gandhara Buddha was shown being tempted by Mara and her seductive daughters (Greco/Roman influence). Strayer describes this sculpture sharing strong resemblances to the Greek God Apollo (God of music, archery, healing, light, truth, etc.), but feels that this version wasn’t as widely accepted as the compassionate version people sought out for help and comfort. From this version, Buddha was modified into his third form, The Bodhisattva of Compassion. This theology was mostly adopted in parts of China and Japan, and he was portrayed as a compassionate woman with numerous heads to hear the cries of the suffering humanity, and with a thousand arms to aid the people. The fourth and final form of Buddha known as the “Laughing Buddha” was designed after a monk named Budai who had also ventured into the country spreading happiness to share his abundance and contentment in the tenth century.
I personally found it fascinating about the evolution of mankind turned into one of philosophy and religion. Before this class I had understood religion as a way to maintain control over the masses of people, and thought this would also encourage the unfair hierarchies of the repressed staying repressed, and the powerful remaining powerful. Negatively speaking, this chapter helped me to read between the lines about how religion supports and gives faith to the powerless, whereas the people with wealth and power were above religion, and held little regard toward it. While I myself may not practice nor believe the controlled versions of religion to be sound, I had also recognized that it could help people gain hope and strength when they felt they couldn’t find it on their own. If I were to practice any of the religions, I felt the forms that focused on developing the “self” with honoring others because it’s the right thing to do, instead of the obligations of sacrifice to be rewarded later for it, would be the practices that I would gravitate towards. These developments of philosophy and spirituality are a huge contrast from the simpler days of struggling to survive in the gatherer-hunter world, and yet it appears to me that the struggle to survive is now an intangible obstacle that one must continually work towards for the unforeseen promise of a better life for the soul to dwell in. Perhaps as the world develops with newer technologies and stronger concentrations of people, one needs to find validity in their actions to find new meaning and purpose for self fulfillment and enlightenment.
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