Chapter 5: and Documents: Society and Inequality in Eurasia/North Africa

                In chapter 5, we’re expanding further into the second-wave of civilizations by observing the growing trends of inequalities within the different societies.  The biggest trends of social inequalities can be found in the caste system of India (priests, warriors, merchants/farmers, laborers, and the untouchables/outcasts), the examination system of education in China, the slavery system in the Roman Empire, and the Patriarchy found in all of the rising civilizations.  In India, we were beginning to witness the inequalities emerge of a person born within their caste and the restrictions they face when they prefer to strive for a better life than the one that was granted to them.  They were also encouraged to keep above the substandard performance when fulfilling their appointed duties, or suffer the consequences of being born into a lesser hierarchy in the next life.  Now we learn about the group that are considered so undesirable that they weren’t considered one of the initial castes—these people were the “untouchables” of polluted souls responsible for the deplorable occupations of handling corpses and janitorial duties.  They were discriminated so ruthlessly that people of any higher classes would avoid direct contact with these “outcastes” in order to preserve the ritual purity within their culture.  It appears that the only way out is by accumulating land or wealth, or somehow being related to an “ancestor” residing in a higher caste.  For China, the best chance for a lower classed person to grow out of their class was through education.  School for the most part could be afforded by people with wealth, and with the implementation for an imperial academy, the Chinese elitists were the first group of people entitled to the education to help govern their country better.  Unfortunately this also spawned incidents of educated scholars (sponsored by poorer villages) abandoning their homes to work in favor of the elites.  The chosen child would be able to climb out of their own individual poverty with the help of their village, but by the time their education would approach the point of completion, the educated scholar would eventually turn their focus to benefit their country rather than aid the village and/or cities that relied on the scholar’s prosperity.

                Not only were the inequalities between economic and social classes becoming exceedingly dominant, but it was also seen between the genders as well.  While all of the communities had different ways of limiting the female roles within their societies, Strayer explained the trends of restrictions on women were far sharper in urban based civilizations than in those pastoral or agricultural societies that lay beyond the reach of elites and empires (p.234).  In contrast to the days of the Paleolithic mentality of equal rights and responsibilities, women were seen as a recessive characteristic compared to the dominant males.  In some respect, women were regarded more valuable in the Paleolithic Era with their ability to bear children; the rising relevance of male dominance could stem from the dawn of agriculture and the cultivation of work through hard labor—when the physically demanding labor became increasingly burdensome, the relevance of the male role in the functioning civilization began to favor the prowess of strength, and eventually phased out the contributions of the female roles.  In Athens for example, Strayer quoted Aristotle when he justified his reasoning of the female inferiorities by stating “a woman is, as it were, an infertile male.  She is female in fact on account of a kind of inadequacy.”  Strayer goes on to elaborate “That inadequacy lay in her inability to generate sperm which contained the ‘soul’ of a new human being.  Her role in the reproductive process was passive, providing a receptacle for the vital male contribution.” (p. 237)  Not only were women becoming overshadowed by the surge of male dominance, but any former contribution women initially provided within their communities have now been discredited into submission of inferiority.  The greatest strengths and attributes that could only be provided by the women are now tainted, and seen as something equivalent to a handicap or detriment.  Over the course of time, women of the different cultures would succumb to the inequality, and societies began to rule in favor of patriarchy.

                In our class last week, we were discussing the origins of patriarchy and were curious as to why so many societies fall into these roles.  For the most part, we recognized the role of the differences in male strength, as well as the female suspensions induced during pregnancy and reproduction.  What was expanded in class that helped clarify this foundation was the evolution of entitlements.  With the women restrained in pregnancy, and the men completing demanding labors for his family, we learned that the males gain a sense of pride and accomplishment when they create something for themselves and their dependents.  This development in property not only pertained to the yield in the crops and the development of their home, but it also confined the movements and freedoms of women as if they were a part of this “property” dynamic as well.  In this world, if the man was able to control the fruition of his wife, he would make sure his property would be passed down to his offspring and secure the future of his hard work.  This is a little uncomfortable for me to write about because my own personal beliefs of how people should regard one another are completely contradictory towards these traditional views, but because of this class, I feel that I can better assess why things became the way they were.  My Human Anatomy & Physiology courses instructed us on the masculine and feminine structures of the body that are not exclusive to the reproductive organs; upon the lectures I’ve learned that the measure of strength is not limited to the enhanced sizes of muscles.  Women too can harness the incredible endurances and tasks that have been exclusive to the male role.  From personal experience, there were some female Marines that would be able to keep up (and at times surpass) the male requirements to do pushups, pull-ups, the Marine Corps Martial Arts program, and other combat related training that would characteristically be designated for the men.  I’m not sure if I have mentioned this in a previous post, but science has also proven the adaptability of humans to the habitat they acclimate to; this to me is important to note because cultural differences and appearances are not what dictate an individual’s strength and weakness are, and thus should not be penalized for disadvantages that they would not have the adequate training for.  This being said, it’s why I find myself and my blogs feeling pessimistic about the course of history and its reoccurring trends of unjust inequalities.  I am grateful to understand how societies were conditioned into these “social norms”, but I also recognize that I am continually questioning how a person like me can address these issues and become part of the solution for equality among the sexes and races.  It is a daunting task for sure, and to be honest I know I am not fully accounting what a life would be like if everybody were to get along without the threats of war, or conflicting religions and politics.  It appears that human nature will always strive to become dominant, and if the threat of other creatures rising to power is eliminated (whether it’s the primal survival of animals that eat humans to live, or diseases/microbial organisms that desire a human host), the people’s only enemy they can fight among is themselves—since humans are now the ultimate dominant specie.  With systems like patriarchy to reduce women from being a part of the competition, or religious castes or lack of education restricting a commoner from ever attaining power, the challenge of acquiring ultimate dominance and freedom continue to elude anybody outside the system from ever achieving this goal.  Damn…

Chapter 4: Culture and Religion in Eurasia with Documents

        In this chapter we learn how this 2nd wave of Civilization led into the Classical Period for the next revolution for mankind. This time period becomes difficult to categorize as the different regions began their next evolutionary phase during different points in time. Competition for dominance between civilizations remained strong during the course of this era, and the conquered lands lead to the formations of complex empires with big diverse cities. An example of this movement could be seen with the Persians (who were the first to create the idea of an empire). To paraphrase: when the Persians migrated to a Ruler’s territory, they had the option to combine forces and become part of the Persian Empire, or challenge them at the risk of losing their lands. While submission toward a challenging empire would traditionally be seen defeat, the Persians believed the conquered villages should continue their lives in autonomy; these results benefited the smaller towns by supporting intricate infrastructures (like the postal system, and the innovative road system), as well as better security between these united towns to migrate and transport goods. The down side to being resigning to the Persian Empire is that in times of war or future conquests, they would use the resources produced by the cities to participate in these conquests.

        Another improvement within this classical period were the rise of unique seminal thinkers. Within each region according to their own timely development, philosophers began to create original ideas about how people should exemplify one another, their domesticated roles within the hierarchy of the community, as well as the improvements that can be made on the self to guarantee desirable passage onto the afterlife. In China, Confucius educated his students with the philosophy of how the everyday man can perfect himself to find an honorable living, and to create honorable relationships. For the Chinese citizens that wish to perfect their lives, his lessons on the “Superior Man” dictate the responsibilities an individual can do to gain humility, as well as providing examples of the “mean man” and their characteristics of the lost focus from Confucius’s guidance. Within the Analects (the collective works of Confucius) he stated that to attain perfect virtue, “It is, when you go abroad, to behave to everyone as if you were receiving a great guest; to employ the people as if you were assisting at a great sacrifice; not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself; to have no murmuring against you in the country, and none in the family.”(p.200). The philosophy of Confucius also emphasizes on the importance of heritage and inspired his followers to practice “filial piety” to honor their fallen ancestors. With the emphasis on hierarchy between family and social ranks, Confucius was also responsible for the Mandate of Heaven which described the fate of people in leadership roles—the appointed leader is expected to exemplify fairness and good will while in office; his success is then decided by the higher powers of the unseen forces (allowing the said leaders get into heaven). The Chinese culture was not religious; however, following the Confucian teachings, they realized their incomprehension with how the world functioned within the physical realm. Due to their limited data, they also could not confirm the knowledge of what to expect in the afterlife. This caused their culture to treat their lives as if the spirits were continually around them. Members of the Chinese elite excluded themselves from the Gods and supernatural forces, and designated the spiritual realm for the middle and poorer classes; the educated elite felt they required little help for enlightenment, and instead they appointed the harmonious and spiritual lifestyle to help manage the bottom classes.

        The origins of Confucianism share a lot of similarities with the Hinduism movement; however, unlike Confucius’s methods pertaining to enlightenment through philosophy, Hinduism was a collection of ideas and gods that helped people find the enlightenment through spirituality. The strongest foundation within the Hindu belief is the theology of reincarnation—where the spirit is born into another life after the individual dies in their current life. The construction of this reincarnation associates within the hierarchy of the Hindu society (the four major roles being the life of a peasant, the life of a merchant, the life of a warrior, and the life of a priest, are all structurally identified as “castes”). When the person dies, they will be reincarnated into the next caste, and with each life they are expected to perform to the best of their ability within that role. Those that attempt to jump the ranks within the living lifetime, or those who fail at fulfilling their roles are said to have tainted souls and would come back as something lesser until they rectify their sins and perform admirably again. This notion is further explored within the Bhagavad Gita Robert Strayer included with his supporting documents; the Bhagavad Gita was a document describing the conflicted leader Arjuna’s decision to lead his men into battle with the foresight of many of his soldiers not surviving the onslaught. His Lord Krishna reaffirms his burdens by explaining the better life the fallen soldiers will be granted if they fought by impeccable standards. One of many quotes within the ancient texts states, “If you do not fight this righteous battle, then you will have abandoned your own duty and your fame and you will incur sin” (p. 201 in Chapter 4 Documents of Strayer’s Ways of the World).

        Within the Documents, Strayer also added some ancient texts that included Plato’s “Apology” to Socrates and the Gospel of Matthew that depicts both of their versions of theology in monotheism. In contrast to Confucianism and Hinduism, Jesus began his teachings to improve the lives of his followers with commandments to honor and practice. Those willing to take on these rules would be granted into his heaven, and the ones that wouldn’t follow were not accepted in. The last seminal thinker that shared the same manifestation of a person turned into a holy deity that Strayer spoke about was Buddha, and the different forms he personified. Originally Buddha was born into royalty and married his cousin at 16, and 13 years later they had a son. During the course of his life, he became steadily curious of the world, and decided to escape his palace the day his son was born. In doing so, he abandoned his jewels, his hair, his clothes, his family, everything in search for enlightenment for 6 years. He began a 49 day intense spiritual realization in India, and became the Buddha people can recognize today as “the man who had awakened”. For the next 40 years, he taught everything he learned from this experience. After Buddha’s passing, his lessons and teachings lived on; his identities grew into spiritual representations of more than just the traveler of the world, and are interpreted into four separate forms. Five centuries after his death, artists depicted his first form as a god by painting unmanned objects that represented him (with footprints, a horse with no rider, a tree, a wheel, etc.) and “…Since he had passed into nirvana he could not be physically present” (p. 209). His second form was the first appearance in human form seen in south Asia, and The Gandhara Buddha was shown being tempted by Mara and her seductive daughters (Greco/Roman influence). Strayer describes this sculpture sharing strong resemblances to the Greek God Apollo (God of music, archery, healing, light, truth, etc.), but feels that this version wasn’t as widely accepted as the compassionate version people sought out for help and comfort. From this version, Buddha was modified into his third form, The Bodhisattva of Compassion. This theology was mostly adopted in parts of China and Japan, and he was portrayed as a compassionate woman with numerous heads to hear the cries of the suffering humanity, and with a thousand arms to aid the people. The fourth and final form of Buddha known as the “Laughing Buddha” was designed after a monk named Budai who had also ventured into the country spreading happiness to share his abundance and contentment in the tenth century.

        I personally found it fascinating about the evolution of mankind turned into one of philosophy and religion. Before this class I had understood religion as a way to maintain control over the masses of people, and thought this would also encourage the unfair hierarchies of the repressed staying repressed, and the powerful remaining powerful. Negatively speaking, this chapter helped me to read between the lines about how religion supports and gives faith to the powerless, whereas the people with wealth and power were above religion, and held little regard toward it. While I myself may not practice nor believe the controlled versions of religion to be sound, I had also recognized that it could help people gain hope and strength when they felt they couldn’t find it on their own. If I were to practice any of the religions, I felt the forms that focused on developing the “self” with honoring others because it’s the right thing to do, instead of the obligations of sacrifice to be rewarded later for it, would be the practices that I would gravitate towards. These developments of philosophy and spirituality are a huge contrast from the simpler days of struggling to survive in the gatherer-hunter world, and yet it appears to me that the struggle to survive is now an intangible obstacle that one must continually work towards for the unforeseen promise of a better life for the soul to dwell in. Perhaps as the world develops with newer technologies and stronger concentrations of people, one needs to find validity in their actions to find new meaning and purpose for self fulfillment and enlightenment.

Chapter 3: State and Empire in Eurasia

                After the first civilizations were established into the Ancient world, not much changed in the rise and fall of power between countries.  All regions were left alone to their own Monarchies, the rich were still wealthy, the poor maintained their poverty, slavery was still enforced, and women in most regions were still regarded as secondary to the primary males.  However, with the successful civilizations optimizing their resources and minimizing threats from their hostile environments, the biggest change seen within this period were the increasing numbers in populations.  As Strayer introduces us to the different realms, we will witness how each civilization refine their individualities with politics, religion, and other identifiable traits that define their culture.  The next major influences within this next big movement are the exchanges of trades and goods between the neighboring countries.  With the regions willingness to collaborate with each other in the trades, they began to develop each other’s efficiency with techniques to enhance the others with technologies and religions, but unfortunately some detrimental diseases as well.

                In Chapter 3, Strayer focuses on the Empires of Eurasia and North Africa.  He describes the functions of Empires in general by being “larger and more aggressive states, those that conquer, rule, and extract resources from other states and peoples.  Thus empires have generally encompassed a considerable variety of peoples and cultures within a single political system, and they have often been associated with political or cultural oppression” (p. 118).  The beginning of this “second-wave” era describes the dominant colonies of people that sought out to best the neighboring communities for their resources and man power.  For some colonies like the Persian and Roman Empire, the conquests for territorial expansion took several centuries when compared to the progress of the Chinese Empire.  For both the Roman and Chinese empires however, they succumbed to the eventual collapse of their regimes.  Strayer’s research exemplifies these detriments by showing examples of the negative results of expansion.  The empires had stretched themselves so far and vast that they began to encounter financial problems, they lacked the technology to sufficiently maintain the resources, and they eventually lost power of authority within the central governments.  Diseases also crippled both empires, and rivalries within the surviving elitists also weakened the suffering authorities—the empires were facing deteriorations both internally and externally; however, within the Chinese regime they were able to retain their political structures and disciplines like an inherited tradition, where the Romans were not successful in rebuilding their fallen empire.

                Not all empires suffered the collapse of expansion.  In contrast to the invasive actions of the earlier empires, India favored the values and moral teachings of Hinduism, which allowed for creativity and encouraged diversity in science, mathematics, art, literature, etc. toward anybody that resided within the community.   Most of the admirable policies didn’t last after the death of Emperor Ashoka, however, in today’s India as well as the peaceful activists, they continue to model the philosophy of Emperor Ashoka to promote cultural tolerance and nonviolence.  China continues to implement their strong faith in dominance with a strong government, and control their citizens with tight boundaries.  While the Roman Empire never recovered from their fall, it is heavily believed that the current United States of America adopted similar idealisms; like the Romans, the beginning of America had the similar interests of growth and expansion in “unclaimed” territory.  This provided opportunity for the soldiers and lower class to work hard in attempts to bring themselves out of poverty, while the upper class had access to acquire desirable land as well as self-appointing the pivotal political roles.  As mentioned in the previous paragraph, the Roman Empire had also created vulnerabilities when they were expanding to different regions—this could also be compared to the modern American involvements and inefficacies of Viet Nam, Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, and potentially Syria.  With the rising power that America has in regard to the rest of the world, Strayer questions the reader if Americans have become the new Romans.

                This chapter was extremely difficult for me to get through due to the dynamics of the different empires, and how they grew from specialization into established governments of ruling people with laws.  It is interesting to note the diversity in which the cultures created their written laws and code of ethics—to believe in strict control of their people and the hunger for resources in certain regions, to the liberal practices that one could reside in another group.  While I can marvel and appreciate the distinguishable edifices and technologies that helped to create these diverse cultures, I also lament for the conquered citizens that became the slaves of these powerful empires.  Without them, it would have been too expensive to create the Pyramids of Egypt, the Great Wall of China, and even the United States Railroad system.  I also felt that Strayer’s thoughts on America becoming the next Roman Empire to be accurate with my own beliefs.  When learning about the Roman Empire in my elementary years, I had remembered learning their rise to power had created complacency, which had led them to their eventual downfall; I ponder if America will suffer the same fate of letting our dominance cloud the judgments of stability and homeostasis.  With more and more citizens losing the respect of their political leaders, and without any positive discernible changes between the populations both in and out of congress, it only forebodes my apprehensions of a struggling America.  Hopefully our history will not suffer the same fate as the Romans have with their removal of future existence.